Force: Magnetic Fields

The ratio between the strengths of gravity and of magnetism is from the forces that two protons exert on each other.  The actual force that can be produced is not a fixed value.  Gravity wins out at the cosmic scale because ultimately magnetism cancels out, positive against negative.  Both actually rise up towards infinity as the distance becomes small but particles do have dimensions and real infinities are out of the question.  The distance between the centers of two adjacent particles can never be zero.  Because protons and neutrons combine to form a complex, the relationship between gravity and magnetism in nucleons can become interesting.  Where a proton approaches a neutron, itself attached to a proton, the two charges are separated by the neutron and gravity becomes potentially relevant.  Bring the neutron and the proton close together and there will be a minute domain where the gravity between them rises up to exceed the ambient (repulsive) magnetic force.  At this point the two particles will adhere.  What has just been described is exactly how the strong nuclear force works, appearing just at the margin of the adhering particles.  Evidently the strong nuclear force is gravity.  Just because gravity is characteristically weak does not mean it can be ignored.  The gravity of a black hole is in fact quite impressive.
 
Within atomic nuclei, especially the larger ones, there are many overlapping forces and other forms of energy.  The strong nuclear force is not at all infinite and potentially not much greater than the sum of other overlapping forces in certain places.  What with internal fluctuations, unstable nuclei have domains where there is a statistical possibility that the ambient aggregate magnetic force might at some point in time rise above the strong nuclear force.  When this happens the result is fission, driven by the weak nuclear force.  The weak nuclear force is known to be a form of magnetism.  The fission particles are driven apart by magnetic repulsion.  All of these ideas about forces have been published in 1992 (de Laubenfels:  It’s Hard to Believe in Infinity).

In order to measure the degree that the predicted expansion of the universe is slowing down due to the drag of gravity, a series of hard to make measurements were recently compiled.  The result was a constant value completely without any slowing down.  In fact one or two point at the extremity were on the high side, a statistically insignificant suggestion of speeding up.  Constancy would be expected in a steady state universe but is contradictory for an expanding universe.  In order to overcome this difficulty, believers in an expanding universe invented a new hitherto undetected accelerating force, even asserting that the expansion was actually speeding up.  Such a proposal would be less difficult to contemplate if there were not so many other objections to the idea of an expanding universe already to deal with.  Leaving aside this dubious proposal, then, there remains but three confirmed forces:  magnetism, gravity, and radiation pressure.

There are interactions between the different forces.  Radio and other kinds of broadcasting take advantage of the interaction between electromagnetism and radiation.  Certainly the various forces interact in atomic nuclei.  Of especial interest is the relation between radiation and gravity.  Radiation passing near large gravitational masses is noticeably deflected, a major consideration in the development of the theory of general relativity.  Radiation leaving large gravitational masses experiences a noticeable red-shift signifying a loss of energy.  It follows that deflected radiation also surrenders a modicum of energy.  Consider then radiation passing through deep space.  There are distant gravitational bodies scattered all around, each exerting a miniscule drag on the passing radiation.  As it progresses through deep space radiation thus experiences a tiny loss of energy, the loss being expressed as a red-shift.  The explanation of the cosmic red-shift as the result of an expanding universe is therefore unnecessary and apparently a major distraction in the advancement of scientific thinking.

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